Solutions and Phase Rule

Strong, moderate and weak electrolytes, degree of ionization, factors affecting degree of ionization, ionization constant and ionic product of water. Ionization of weak acids and bases, pH scale, common ion effect; Dissociation constants of mono-, di- and tri- protic acids (exact treatment). Salt hydrolysis- Calculation of hydrolysis constant, degree of hydrolysis and pH for different salts. Buffer solutions:  Derivation of Henderson equation and its applications, Buffer capacity, buffer range, buffer action and applications of buffers in analytical chemistry and biochemical processes in the human body. Solubility and solubility product of sparingly soluble salts – Applications of solubility product principle. Qualitative treatment of acid – base titration curves (calculation of pH at various stages). Theory of acid – base indicators; Selection of indicators and their limitations. Multistage equilibria in polyelectrolyte systems; Hydrolysis and hydrolysis constants.

Introduction, colligative properties, Raoult’s law, relative lowering of vapour pressure; Osmosis, law of osmotic pressure and its measurement, Elevation of boiling point and its measurement,  Depression of freezing point and its measurement, Use of colligative properties in molecular weight determination; Non-ideal behaviour and Van’t Hoff’s factor ‘i’.

Solutions: Ideal and non-ideal solutions, methods of expressing concentrations of solutions, Solution of gases in liquid: Henry’s law, deviation from Henry’s law. Non ideal system: Azeotropes –ethanol-water systems. Partially miscible liquids: phenol-water, trimethylamine-water, nicotine-water systems; Lower and upper consolute temperature, effect of impurity on consolute temperature; Immiscible liquids.

Introduction to phase, component and degree of freedom, derivation of Gibbs phase rule;

Phase equilibria of one component system-water, CO₂ and sulphur system, liquid helium.

Phase equilibria of two component system-solid-liquid equilibria , simple eutectic – Bi-Cd, KI-H₂O, Pb-Ag systems, desilverisation of lead.

Solid solutions: compound formation with congruent melting point (Mg-Zn) and incongruent melting point (NaCl-H₂O), (FeCl₃ – H₂O), (CuSO₄ – H₂O)and (Na₂SO₄–H₂O) system; freezing mixtures (acetone – dry ice).

Phase diagrams for three component systems. Acetic acid –chloroform-water.